This text was shortlisted as a finalist within the 2024 E-Worldwide Relations Article Award, sponsored by Edinburgh College Press, Polity, Sage, Bloomsbury and Routledge.
The Group of Shared Future for Mankind has been Xi Jinping’s imaginative and prescient for the long run world order. Xi believes that the mentioned world order is already within the making and China leads the method. Subsequently, understanding China’s imaginative and prescient for world order is of paramount significance to constructing peace and improvement in our area. This text goals to debate the philosophical underpinning of Xi’s imaginative and prescient and juxtapose it with China’s behaviour.
The Group of Shared Future for Mankind: The Message Behind the Title
President Xi Jinping for the primary time mentioned人类命运共同体 (renlei mingyun gongtongti) earlier than the worldwide viewers in March 2013 on the Moscow State Institute of Worldwide Relations. On a number of necessary events, Xi Jinping additionally spoke of 人类命运共同体 (renlei mingyun gongtongti), together with in his remarks earlier than the Indonesian parliament in October 2013. Till the primary half of 2015, the official English translation for 人类命运共同体 (renlei mingyun gongtongti) was “Group of Shared Future for Mankind”. Nevertheless, since Xi Jinping’s comment on the UN Normal Meeting in New York on 28 September 2015, the official translation for the phrase turns into “Group of Shared Future for Mankind”. The phrase “命运 (mingyun)” is translated as “future” as an alternative of “future”.
Apparently, by avoiding the phrase “future” Beijing doesn’t wish to ship an impression of one thing inevitable for the world. In addition to, the phrase “future” might indicate China’s large ambition to steer the world, which can elevate concern amongst different nations. The phrase “future” sounds extra amicable and fewer revisionist. However, there is no such thing as a adjustment in Chinese language official paperwork for 人类命运共同体 (renlei mingyun gongtongti). Chinese language authorities apologetically makes use of the phrase “命运 (mingyun)”. In different phrases, what’s written in Chinese language official paperwork – not the English translation – have to be Beijing’s actual intention. Subsequently analysing the that means behind the unique textual content can’t be ignored.
The phrase 命 (ming) means decree, order or reward from the leaders to their subordinates. It additionally connotes a life-span or path of life past human management. Briefly, the phrase 命 (ming) is a property given within the context of energy relation and/or ethical superiority. Furthermore, 运 (yun) means to revolve. It refers to cosmic revolution like seasonal change or the rise and fall of dynasties. In a person context, 运 (yun) refers to good luck or misfortune. On the whole, when two phrases are bundled, 命运 (mingyun) delivers the that means of mandate, destiny and future.
Home and Worldwide Reception
The Group of Shared Future for Mankind (CSFM hereafter) has been one of many key parts of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese language Traits for a New Period (Xi Jinping Thought) – enshrined within the Chinese language Communist Social gathering Structure in October 2017 and the Structure of the Folks’s Republic of China in March 2018. Internationally, Xi Jinping has launched CSFM in two UN boards. They’re the 70th Session of the UN Normal Meeting in New York (September 2015) and Xi Jinping’s comment earlier than the UN Workplace in Geneve (January 2017).
China claimed that the CSFM has been well known by the worldwide neighborhood. The actual fact reveals that this declare is uncertain. On the event of the 75th anniversary of the United Nations in June 2020, six nations i.e. the US, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and India rejected the phrase “shared imaginative and prescient of a typical future” to be included within the draft of Declaration for the Commemoration of the UN’s 75th Anniversary. The six nations argued that the phrase has been related to the Chinese language Communist Social gathering and Chinese language President Xi Jinping’s world imaginative and prescient. As a result of objection, the phrase “shared imaginative and prescient of a typical future” was excluded from the declaration ultimately.
The Content material of CSFM: Studying China’s Proposal and Actions
On 26 September 2023, the State Council of the Folks’s Republic of China issued a doc titled “A World Group of Shared Future: China’s Proposal and Actions” (China’s Proposal and Actions hereafter). It develops Xi Jinping’s CSFM Proposal as conveyed within the two abovementioned UN boards. Compared, China’s Proposal and Actions is extra systematic because it goals to show the CSFM into concrete motion.
China’s Proposal and Actions begins with an outline of the present world scenario reaching a crossroads. Within the first half, the doc underlines the prevalence of instability, uncertainty and deficit belief. The basis causes of these phenomena are Chilly Conflict mentality, jungle regulation, hegemonic behaviour and ideological confrontation. Along with that, it emphasizes the interdependence amongst nations because the enduring norm all through historical past. Therefore, a brand new period wants recent concepts with future orientation. To fill the hole, China responds to the wants by proposing the concepts that the world lacks.
Within the second half, the doc presents the concepts to ascertain world governance based mostly on openness, equality, justice, harmonious coexistence, range, cooperation and unity. It strongly criticizes the creation of unique blocs, the observe of double-standard and the imposition of hegemony by “sure nations”. Moreover, China is in opposition to the efforts to thwart creating nations from reaching expertise. This criticism targets the US and its allies. China urges the democratization of worldwide relations by giving extra voice to creating nations in addition to the institution of fairer and more practical world governance.
The third half demonstrates the continuance of CSFM with Chinese language tradition and historical past. It says that Chinese language tradition stresses concord as the important thing idea. Concord have to be realised not solely within the home but additionally within the world context. The concept of concord supposes all nations on this planet as one neighborhood which pursues justice for the widespread good (大同 datong, the Nice Concord). This idea of Nice Concord is demonstrated in Beijing’s initiatives akin to Belt and Street Initiatives (BRI), World Safety Initiative (GSI), World Improvement Initiative (GDI) and World Civilization Initiative (GCI). Along with that, the doc additionally reveals the compatibility of the idea of Nice Concord in lots of world completely different cultures. In different phrases, China’s Proposal and Actions confirms the acceptance of the Chinese language idea by different cultures.
The fourth half reveals concrete motion towards the conclusion of CSFM. On this half, China amplifies its criticism in the direction of the Western world. Gone is the period of unilateralism, hegemony, overseas interference, unilateral sanctions and double-standard. China urges new ideas and concepts to interchange the outdated period. China claims that it doesn’t have a historical past of aggression, or imperialism in the direction of different nations. China is set to remain peaceable although it can develop into the world’s superpower.
The fifth half introduces Beijing’s concrete actions in realizing CSFM. One in every of them is BRI which connects folks and companies throughout nations. Then, the worldwide initiatives (GSI, GDI and GCI) are launched to amplify the sense of neighborhood within the space of safety, improvement and civilization. China additionally shows its management position through the Covid-19 pandemic. All in all, China goals to exhibit that CSFM is just not an empty idea. It’s within the making as evidenced by China’s contribution to the world. The important thing themes of CSFM is summarized in Desk 1: The Highlights of CSFM.
The desk above demonstrates that China’s Proposal and Actions is one step forward of two Xi Jinping’s UN remarks. Undoubtedly, it’s extra articulate in expressing China’s dissatisfaction with the present worldwide system and extra pungent in criticizing Western nations’ attitudes. China’s Proposal and Actions additionally shows various concepts and values because the antithesis of Western norms. Moreover, it reveals that CSFM is already within the making and China has led the method by enterprise its world initiatives.
The Underpinning Political Ideas
There are at the least two primary political ideas which have had a profound affect on Xi Jinping Thought, together with the CSFM. Initially, Xi is a diehard Marxist-Leninist. On the event of the First Group Examine Session of the Political Bureau of the 18th CPC Central Committee on 19 November 2012 Xi reiterated his perception (信仰, xinyang) in Marxism, Socialism and Communism because the political souls of the CPC cadres who permits them to face tall in opposition to all odds. Noteworthily, Xi positions Marxism, Socialism and Communism on equal phrases with spiritual beliefs. On that event, Xi mentioned “马克思信仰” (makesi xinyang; Marxist religion) as an alternative of ”马克思主义” (makesi zhuyi, Marxism or Marxist ideology/doctrine). Within the Chinese language language (信仰, xinyang) refers to non secular religion or any supernatural beliefs. As well as, Xi warned his viewers of the destiny of the Soviet Union in 1991 if they didn’t have unshakable religion in Marxism-Communism and didn’t uphold Socialism with Chinese language Traits. Other than his Marxist-Leninist religion, Xi additionally emphasizes his conviction within the pre-eminence of Chinese language tradition and civilization. He wrote an article in Qiushi Journal on the urgency of researching Chinese language historical past and civilization. By upholding its roots, China reveals the world that it’s endowed with historic knowledge and an ethical asset to advertise the CSFM.
General, Xi Jinping’s political underpinning might be summarized in an idea titled “Two Integrations”. The idea of “Two Integrations” was delivered by Xi at a gathering on cultural heritage and improvement in September 2023. “Two Integrations” means the mixing of Marxism into Chinese language folks’s realities and the mixing of Marxism into Chinese language conventional tradition. Xi believes that “Two Integrations” ensures the Communist Social gathering’s success in rejuvenating the Chinese language nation. Therefore, to place issues into perspective, CSFM have to be learn within the context of Marxism and Chinese language conventional thought.
Marxism
There are at the least a number of Marxist core ideas which have influenced CSFM: Dialectical Materialism, Anti Hegemonic, The Principle of Contradiction and Historic Inevitability. Within the first half, China’s Proposal and Actions narrates human progress from the agricultural period, the commercial revolution to the knowledge revolution. This description is Marxist because it begins from materials actuality as an alternative of ideas or concepts. Marx taught that social evaluation should start from materials circumstances. If Marx’s dialectical materialism begins with the manufacturing mannequin in society, China’s Proposal and Actions begins its evaluation from hegemonic/exploitative worldwide relations. It signifies world disaster on the prevalence of 4 deficits (peace, improvement, safety and world governance). These deficits are the implications of hegemonic relations. The evaluation of worldwide circumstances in China’s Proposal and Actions is summarised in Desk 2: World Realities and Its Answer.
Compared to Xi Jinping’s remarks earlier than two UN boards, China’s Proposal and Actions is dominated by anti-hegemony rhetoric. It blatantly identifies the West’s hegemonic behaviour as the basis of worldwide crises. The West’s behaviour of unilateralism, cold-war mentality, energy abuse, double-standard and hegemonic is the basis reason for the chasm between developed and creating nations. As a consequence, the doc proposes an answer that’s opposite to Western thought and behavior.
Utilizing the Marxist framework, China’s Proposal and Actions portrays at the moment’s world hegemonic system featured by asymmetrical rivalry amongst nations through which highly effective states can impose their will on weaker states in economic system, politics, navy, diplomacy and tradition. Immanuel Wallerstein, a neo-Marxist scholar argues {that a} hegemon is a celebration that imposes world liberalism and the free market. A hegemonic state additionally interferes in different states’ inner affairs for the sake of its nationwide curiosity. Furthermore, the hegemonic system operates in response to capitalist ideas through which the world is split into core states, semi-periphery and periphery states. The core states are people who personal expertise, capital-intensive industries, and wealth accumulation. In distinction, the periphery states are people who personal labour-intensive industries and provide pure sources to the core states. Wallerstein contends that on this system, added values regularly move to the core states, leaving the periphery states on the backside of the worldwide provide chain perennially.
Although China’s Proposal and Actions doesn’t elaborate on these asymmetrical relations, its message resonates nicely with its criticism of the worldwide injustice attributable to the hegemonic system. On the whole, CSFM proposes a brand new system that dethrones Western hegemonic energy.
In 1937 Mao Zedong printed his writing titled On Contradiction (矛盾论). This writing was meant to use Marxism in response to the Chinese language context. In his essay, Mao argues that the regulation of contradiction is the essence of each materials object. It’s the basis of societal improvement and it happens in a selected context. Moreover, Mao elaborates on forms of contradiction: antagonistic (not common) and non-antagonistic (common) in addition to major and secondary. In a capitalistic society, antagonistic contradiction takes place between the capitalists (exploiter) and the proletariats (exploited). The answer to this contradiction is the proletariat revolution. Antagonistic contradiction could develop into non-antagonistic and vice versa. For example, the antagonistic contradiction within the capitalistic society within the Republic of China period occurred between the Nationalist Social gathering (Guomindang) which represented the capitalists and the Communist Social gathering which represented the proletariats. This antagonistic contradiction (major) grew to become non-antagonistic (secondary) on account of their cooperation in resisting Japanese aggression in 1937-1945.
In 75 years of its historical past, the Folks’s Republic of China has formulated three primary contradictions that are based mostly on folks’s wants and the manufacturing provide. The contradictions are summarized in Desk 3: Three Fundamental Contradictions within the Historical past of the Folks’s Republic of China.
Although it’s not explicitly said in China’s Proposal and Actions, one can infer that the contradiction within the CSFM happens between the worldwide hegemonic system featured by multi-dimensional crises vis-à-vis human wants for an interdependent world neighborhood which upholds inclusivity, equality, justice, concord, pluralism and cooperation.
Marx and Engels claimed that the socialist revolution would inevitably topple capitalism. Through the use of the phrase 命运 (mingyun, future)as defined above, does CSFM convey the identical message of historic inevitability as believed by Marx and Engels? Does Xi Jinping consider that the world is en route to a worldwide neighborhood? Or does he merely suggest a roadmap for a world order sooner or later?
The paper argues that each Marxism and CSFM based mostly their inevitability on the rationality of the idea. Marx and Engels believed that socialism would inevitably dethrone capitalism as a result of rationally, capitalism is self-defeating. The self-alienation within the manufacturing course of is dehumanization, due to this fact on the sting of historical past, people will return to their social nature (communism). In keeping with Marx, communism is just not an ethical steerage, it’s the essence of humanity. It additionally resonated nicely Lenin’s conviction that every one types of capitalism, together with imperialism and hegemony will ultimately rot on account of its parasitic nature. In the identical method, Xi Jinping believes that CSFM is by the course of historical past. The present hegemonic system is unfair and doomed to fail. Gone is the period of hegemony, zero-sum perspective and ideological rivalry. Mankind wishes a worldwide neighborhood that includes justice, equality and customary prosperity. Those that struggle for this function are on the proper aspect of historical past.
Conventional Chinese language Thought
Xi Jinping’s imaginative and prescient of the world as a neighborhood has its roots in Chinese language conventional considered 大同 (datong, the good concord/the good union). China’s Proposal and Actions mentions concord as the important thing idea of Chinese language tradition that pursues solidarity, mutual progress in range and world concord (天下大同). China’s Proposal and Actions additionally states that the Chinese language consider the human race is one world neighborhood. On this period, the need of mankind is directed towards one household. CSFM is proposed exactly amid the human want for a imaginative and prescient of unity that accommodates the course of historical past. This part discusses the points of datong that profoundly affect the CSFM.
大同 (datong) appeared for the primary time in the seventh chapter of 礼记 (liji, the ritual notes). Liji was a guide information for Confucian ethics compiled within the third to the second century earlier than Christ. Confucianist scholar who developed the considered datong is Kang Youwei (1858-1927) in his e-book “On the Nice Concord” (大同书, datongshu). Kang’s imaginative and prescient is to abolish personal possession and lessons inside the society and the nation. Kang believes that Confucian benevolence (仁, ren) should not be restricted to sure social teams. In keeping with his studying on Confucianism, Kang was in opposition to uneven wealth distribution in society. He attributed this social phenomenon to selfishness and greediness. Kang urged eradicating societal partitions, together with the familial boundary to completely implement Confucian benevolence (仁, ren) in all points of the society.
大同 (datong) is the Chinese language idea of bonum commune. It is a perfect model of home and world society. 大同 (datong) is the superior model of 小康 (xiaokang) – a fundamental degree of socialism as coined by Deng Xiaoping. In keeping with conventional Chinese language thought, in xiaokang society the aristocratic households and capitalists nonetheless preserve property possession from era to era. Whereas in datong society there is no such thing as a spirit of egocentric wealth accumulation by sure teams of clans. All boundaries have to be abolished to implement Confucian benevolence (仁, ren). Properties {and professional} jobs have to be devoted to public affairs. Kang contends that Confucian benevolence (仁, ren) should develop and propagate from the familial circle to all humanity and even the entire creation. 大同 (datong) embraced by CSFM is a neighborhood of all nations that promotes widespread prosperity with out hegemony and oppression.
Within the early years of recent China after the autumn of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, the imaginative and prescient of datong grew to become a preferred political idea. Solar Yatsen adopted the imaginative and prescient of datong as a super society as proven within the nationwide anthem of the Republic of China 三民主义 (sanmin zhuyi, the three ideas):
Whereas among the many early Chinese language communists, datong is used to introduce communism to Chinese language society. The distinguished determine of this undertaking is Li Dazhao (1889-1927) often called the primary Chinese language Marxist. In keeping with Li, socialism is a synthesis of Marxism and Chinese language conventional thought. He urged {that a} socialist society embodies these sure characters: (1) manufacturing pressure might be owned and dominated by the society, not sure people or teams; (2) economic system might be dominated to develop humanity as an alternative of revenue accumulation; (3) justice is realised in even wealth distribution and alternatives; (4) the society wants an establishment which execute the need of the folks; (5) the state will present social insurance coverage for the poor and weak teams; (6) people will develop their capability for widespread good as an alternative of non-public profit. Briefly, Li believes that datong might be manifested in society by following the Marxist principle, i.e. management of manufacturing forces by the society.
Identical to Kang Youwei, Li Dazhao positions China within the world context and elaborates on China’s position – as one of many oldest civilizations – in shaping the world’s future. Li contends that the advance of world construction is a situation for human liberation. Subsequently the wrestle for emancipation in opposition to exploitation have to be performed within the world context. Li urged China to cooperate with different nations and take part within the world wrestle to realize worldwide proletariat. Xi Jinping subscribes to Li Dazhao’s elaboration of China’s world position. Li believed that China should play the position of supporting the course of historical past towards socialism. Correspondingly, Xi perceives that China should play the important thing position in constructing a human neighborhood which is honest and anti-hegemony.
CSFM: Between Rhetoric and Actuality
Within the final a part of the State Council doc, China reveals its concrete actions and initiatives to construct a neighborhood of shared future. However, China’s behaviour is crucial in deciding if CSFM goes to be a world norm. There are at the least three components to evaluate Beijing’s consistency with its proposal. In China’s Proposal and Motion, Beijing condemns hegemony and urges all nations to keep up the world order based mostly on worldwide regulation. China denounces double requirements behaviour and selective compliance with worldwide regulation. Nevertheless, how China defends its personal behaviour within the South China Sea. China’s declare within the South China Sea can’t be reconciled with the 1982 UNCLOS regardless that it has ratified the Conference. Moreover, Beijing has shunned the UNCLOS Tribunal ruling that invalidates its declare and behavior within the South China Sea. This truth underlines that China itself additionally practices double requirements and selective compliance with worldwide regulation.
CSFM in addition to the World Safety Initiative promotes political dialogue and session as the only mechanism for dispute decision. Apparently, China goals to keep away from worldwide regulation mechanisms. In contrast to the worldwide regulation mechanisms, political dialogue and session entail asymmetrical energy among the many individuals. Within the case of the South China Sea dispute, for example, China proposes bilateral negotiation with different claimant states that are militarily and economically weaker. Subsequently, on the bilateral session, China and different claimant states aren’t on an equal footing. Dialogue and session are certainly necessary in worldwide relations. Nevertheless, solely selling these within the safety points and excluding different mechanisms is in opposition to the spirit of equity and equality.
China’s Proposal and Actions upholds the spirit of equality, mutual respect and mutual studying amongst completely different civilizations. It additionally underlines that no nation can declare superiority over others. Nevertheless, Beijing is eager on stressing itself as one of many world’s oldest civilizations that possesses ethical belongings to steer the world. This perspective appears to contravene the spirit of equality. In its South China Sea narrative, Beijing claims that the Sea has been Chinese language area since “time immemorial”. This declare is groundless in response to fashionable worldwide regulation. Certainly, China implies superiority over different nations by stressing its older civilization. Alternatively, China’s Proposal and Motion rejects uniformity in making use of democracy. It mentioned, “Democracy is just not Coca-Cola, tasting the identical internationally because the syrup is produced in a single single nation”. Beijing claims the universality of CSFM aspiration and retains relativizing Western values.
Conclusion
CSFM is Beijing’s proposal to fill the hole within the contradiction between two circumstances. First is the worldwide scenario affected by multi-dimensional crises on account of Western energy’s hegemonic behaviour. Second is the robust tendency of humanity on this period to construct a worldwide neighborhood. It’s exactly below this situation, that CSFM proposes a neighborhood for mankind which upholds equality, justice, concord, range, cooperation and unity. Marxism and Chinese language conventional thought are profoundly embedded within the CSFM. The 2 ideas are Xi Jinping’s steerage in formulating home and overseas insurance policies. On one aspect, Marxism is the soul and the raison d’etre of the Chinese language Communist Social gathering. On the flip aspect, upholding Chinese language conventional thought has develop into the supply of ethical legitimacy for the Communist Social gathering to rule the nation. Whether or not the CSFM will materialize because the imaginative and prescient of world order relies on Beijing’s consistency with its rhetoric. This paper argues that China’s behaviour is just not absolutely in step with the CSFM. Notably, within the difficulty of compliance with worldwide regulation and equality amongst completely different civilizations. Provided that China backs its phrases with deeds can the CSFM get pleasure from wider acceptance.
Additional Studying on E-Worldwide Relations
